Risk Taking in Adolescence - Prefrontal Regions / Frontostriatal Circuitry

I continue to dig around for articles on risk-taking.  This one studies how the maturity of prefrontal regions and their connection to frontostriatal circuitry impacts risk taking behaviour.  My purpose and interest in this article is in optimizing a learning situation.  I want to know what the cognitive variables are that influence learning.  Does an optimal learning situation necessitate an element of risk?  ie. if adolescents are predisposed to risk-taking behaviour, how can we leverage this in learning?  How does technology factor into this?  How can technology augment and optimize a learning situation?

http://neuro.cjb.net/content/26/25/6885.full.pdf+html

Earlier Development of the Accumbens Relative to

Orbitofrontal Cortex Might Underlie Risk-Taking Behavior

in Adolescents

The Journal of Neuroscience, 21 June 2006, 26(25): 6885-6892; doi: 10.1523/​JNEUROSCI.1062-06.2006

Adriana Galvan, Todd A. Hare, Cindy E. Parra, Jackie Penn, Henning Voss, Gary Glover, and B. J. Casey

"The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that adolescence is a developmental period of increased responsivity to reward relative to childhood and adulthood" (p. 6885)

"Adolescence is characterized by continued structural and functional development of frontostriatal circuitry implicated in behavioral regulation" (p. 6885)

"These findings suggest that different developmental trajectories for these regions may relate to the increased impulsive and risky behaviors observed during this period of development" (p. 6889)

"One goal of this study was to characterize reward learning across development. Adults showed behavioral distinction to the three cues, with fastest responses to the large reward cue. Adolescents showed less discrete responses and children show little to no learning" (p. 6890)

"Here, our data suggest that reward-related neural responses influence behavioral output" (p. 6890)

"Evidence from our study supports the notion that relative reward preference is exaggerated during adolescence: adolescents showed an enhanced accumbens response to the large reward and a decrease in activity to the small reward relative to other rewards and to other ages" (p. 6890)

"Adolescents report greater intensity of positive feelings and more positive BOLD signal intensity than adults during a win condition (Ernst et al., 2005). The adolescents may have viewed the small reward as an omission of reward, similar to lack of an expected event at a given time, previously shown to decrease striatal activity (Davidson et al., 2004). This finding corresponded to a slowing of reaction time from early to late trials for the smaller rewards, providing additional evidence that this condition may have been perceived as more negative for adolescents. Together, these findings imply that reward perception might be influenced by changes in neural systems during adolescence (Irwin, 1993)" (p. 6890)

"Understanding the development of structural and functional connectivity of reward-related mesolimbic circuitry may further inform the field on the neurobiological basis of increased reward-seeking and adolescent-onset addiction"(p. 6891)

"Thus, disproportionate contributions of subcortical systems relative to prefrontal regulatory systems may underlie poor decision-making that predisposes adolescents to drug use and, ultimately, addiction." (p. 6891)

Risk Taking Study - Measuring Risk Using a Video Game, "Chicken"

https://www.uwf.edu/smathews/documents/peerroleinrisktakinggardnerandsteinberg.pdf


A study by Gardner & Steinberg (2005) measuring risk taking behaviour of adolescents vs. adults using a video game, "Chicken."  Users were tested on how long they would allow a virtual car to travel, knowing that a wall would pop up at some time between when the traffic light changed from yellow to red.  Points were allocated for waiting longer before stopping the car.  Restarts were also allowed if users wanted to go further and score more points.


In terms of gender, the study "found few significant gender effects. There were no differences between males and females on risk taking or risky decision making, nor were there any significant two-way interaction effects involving gender on measures of these constructs" (p. 630).


The study did find "differences in age and condition effects on the measure of risk preference. First, males gave significantly greater weight to the benefits of risky decisions than did females" and "second, we found that males weighted the benefits of risky activities more heavily when in a group than when alone, but that cost– benefit consideration did not differ substantially between the group and sole participant conditions among females.  Lastly, "among younger individuals, males weighted the benefits of risky decisions more heavily than did females but that among older individuals males and females gave comparable weights to the benefits of risky decisions" (p. 630).

Conclusions

"Between adolescence and adulthood there is a significant decline 

in both risk taking and risky decision making. In addition, our 

findings suggest that, in some situations, individuals may take 

more risks, evaluate risky behavior more positively, and make 

more risky decisions when they are with their peers than when they 

are by themselves. Most importantly, the effects of peer presence 

on both risk taking and risky decision making vary as a function of 

age" (p. 632).

"We did find some interesting gender differences in risk preference, 

however. Specifically, males, particularly at younger ages, 

were more likely than were females to weigh the benefits of risky 

activities over the costs. Additionally, peer effects on benefit 

versus cost consideration were greater among males than among 

females. Although we did not explicitly predict these gender 

differences, our findings are consistent with several previous studies. 

For instance, Parsons, Halkitis, Bimbi, and Borkowski (2000) 

found that, among young adults, males reported more benefits and 

fewer risks when asked about the consequences of risky behaviors. 

Additionally, Brown et al. (1986) found that, at least among 

adolescents, males are more susceptible to peer influence than are 

females in antisocial or risky situations. Nonetheless, it is interesting 

that these gender related differences in risk– benefit consideration 

did not translate into gender differences on the more direct 

measures of risk taking or risky decision making" (p. 633).


So if I'm going this direction, I will have to take what we know about risk taking and apply it to a learning situation with specific outcomes.  Initially I was thinking of gender differences in relation to risk taking among individual boys and girls, however, Michele has me thinking about collaboration and participatory learning environments.  The Gardner & Steinberg study raises questions of how males might collaborate in a learning situation that promotes risk-taking.


Here's what this could look like:


male individual - low risk learning scenario
female individual - high risk learning scenario
male group - low risk learning scenario
female group - high risk learning scenario


What would a low risk or high risk learning situation look like?  How do we define risk taking in learning?

Puddle Jumping - Boys and Risk Taking

This week a glorious Chinook swept through Calgary.  Off came the toques and mittens, winter jackets and scarves, and ice began to thaw.  The temperature shifted so much in fact, that the ice melted into sizeable pools of water, dirtying vehicles and splashing unsuspecting pedestrians.

At our school, ever curious elementary children began to explore into these pools of ice water.  Chunks of ice skimmed across the surface while winter boots and wooly socks sponged up cold water.  Our administration responded by making regular cautionary announcements, stationing a perimeter of pylons, and stepping up supervision around these ponds.

While on supervision, I witnessed a grade 2 boy testing the limits of our "stay out of the frozen pool of water in the playground" policy.  He observed the pylons, dipping the toe of his boot just along the border of the pond. He delighted in the sharp crackle of the ice when his toe broke through.  The boy soon got caught in the moment.  His other boot followed suit, testing the limits of the ice and his supervisor.  It wasn't long before both boots full on plunged into the water.  The boy squealed, flapped his arms and spun around, swirling loose pieces of ice.  Though inside I was delighted by spirit of this boy's exploration, my professional duties won over and I asked him to leave the area as it was deemed unsafe.

Risk management.  At what cost?   At our school, we speak about taking risks in our practice and encouraging students to take risks in their learning.  I've accepted this, seemingly without question, for the past few years.  Now I wish to confront it.  What does this actually mean?

I dug up an article titled, "Why Do Boys Engage in More Risk Taking Than Girls?  The Role of Attributions, Beliefs, and Risk Appraisals" by Barbara A. Morrongiello and Heather Rennie. http://jpepsy.oxfordjournals.org/content/23/1/33.full.pdf+html  The article begins by citing research on gender differences in relation to risk taking, such as activity levels, socialization, amount of direct supervision, and constraints parents place upon each gender.  Morrongiello and Rennie (1998) identify the purpose of their research, which is to examine "the possibility that cognitive-based factors also may contribute to increased injury liability among boys" They assessed "children's beliefs about their personal vulnerability" and whether "they are less susceptible to injury than their peers" (p. 34).  These researchers conducted a survey with a sample of boys and girls, asking them to rate a series of scenarios on their relative risk.  They discovered that "for the highest risk condition, boys' risk ratings for the confident wary-affect displays were significantly less than the corresponding ratings by girls" (p. 38).  Also, "boys attributed more injuries to bad luck" and "expressed more of an optimism bias than girls" (p. 40).  Interestingly, in terms of peer influence, boys may be more inclined than girls to engage in an injury-risk activity even if they observe a peer get hurt doing the activity" (p. 41).

So what does this all mean for my research?  Going back to my original post, my goal in this thesis is to "to determine how to best meet the learning needs of a boy."  Given a boy's propensity to take risks, how can we harness this behaviour and apply it in a productive and meaningful way in the classroom?

Call of Duty

How did Treyarch do it?  The developer behind Call of Duty: Black Ops managed to break the record for "the largest ever entertainment launch in history in any form of entertainment" with sales of "$310 million within the first day."  I want to know how.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treyarch


The topic of this blog post will need to be explored in more depth, however I'd like to start with the reflective level of Norman's Three Levels of Design (visceral, behavioural, and reflective) in relation to the Call of Duty franchise.  In his book, Emotional Design, Norman talks about how at the reflective level, "the overall impact of a product comes through reflection - in retrospective memory and reassessment" (p. 88).  The first Call of Duty game was launched in 2003 with each subsequent iteration of the game operating at the reflective level.  The nostalgia factor and "gamer cred" associated with playing these games provides fodder for marketing campaigns in the form of game trailers, multiplayer advertising, reviews, and toys.  Interestingly, Activision, the publisher of these games, has also created a Call of Duty Endowment, aimed at supporting U.S. veterans to find employment.  All of these measures serve to satisfy the reflective level of design, ensuring the continued longevity of the franchise.  Previous Call of Duty games then help to explain part of Treyarch's success with Black Ops.


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Call_of_Duty


I have more to explore on this subject.  Where I am going with this is to take a prominent digital success story (in terms of sales, ethics and moral considerations are another issue entirely), study it and ask how this can be replicated in education.  Call of Duty has successfully engaged millions of people worldwide.   If I were to introduce a digital learning tool to a student, how could I achieve the engagement level synonymous with this franchise?  At the core, what is Call of Duty doing right that could be revamped and presented in an educational context to engage boys?

The Education Arcade

Check out Revolution by The Education Arcade, built on the Neverwinter Nights engine.  The company does not charge for this 18th century American Revolution mod, however, you do need a copy of Neverwinter Nights to run it.  Is this a game built with educational goals inherent in its design or a video game with education tacked on as an afterthought?

http://www.educationarcade.org/node/357

Becker

Katrin Becker's work on serious game theory is noteworthy.  She began this body of work by asking these questions:

1. What is it about games that makes them so engaging?
2. How can we transform that into games for learning?
3. How can we design GOOD games for learning?
4. How important is it to know how the technology works, if you want to design artifacts that use it?

http://www.minkhollow.ca/becker/doku.php?id=serious_games

I am interested in exploring a broader sense of student engagement through games.  However, meeting the needs of boys is ultimately where I see this taking me.  To get to the crux of what it means to engage 21st century learners and the digital literacy skills required to navigate this terrain, it will be important to explore both genders and their unique sets of needs.

This is a link off of Becker's website to Christine Daviault's work, Look Who's Pulling the Trigger Now: A Study of Girls'/Women's Relationship With Video Games.

http://www.nlc-bnc.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/ftp01/MQ54260.pdf

I am drawn to outliers, what occurs in the margins.  Female hardcore gamers interest me because they challenges my assumptions about the interests of boys and girls.  Let's crack this open.

Black Ops

I'm at the video store with my 13 year old son and his friend.  The two of them are chewing massive wads of berry-flavoured bubblegum, perusing the aisles and chatting about the latest video games on the shelves.  I overhear, "I totally want to play Black Ops," followed by an enthusiastic exchange of indeterminable teenaged male utterances.  They refer to, of course, the new Call of Duty game, one that is rated 'M' and stands a snowball's chance of ever entering my household.

At launch, Black Ops sold 7 million copies and as of December of 2010, a combined 68,000 years worth of game time has been logged.  Chrysler has even manufactured a limited edition Black Ops Jeep Wrangler in response to the popularity of this game.  It's no wonder my son finds himself caught up in the wave of media attention this game has received.  As a parent, how do I respond?

How are Call of Duty games catering to the interests of boys and what compels my son to participate?

http://gamrfeed.vgchartz.com/story/83240/gamers-have-already-played-68000-years-of-cod-black-ops/
http://kotaku.com/#!5667616/treyarch-explains-the-call-of-duty-jeep-wrangler